Karen L. Krok, MD, Assistant Professor of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology, Hospital of the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
Andrés Cárdenas, MD, MMSc, Institut de Malalties Digestives i Metaboliques, Hospital Clinic, Institut d’Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.

Ascites is the accumulation of free fluid in the peritoneal cavity. In over 80% of cases, it is a result of cirrhosis. Ascites develops in 60% of patients with cirrhosis within 10 years of the diagnosis of cirrhosis, and its development marks a turning point in the natural history of the disease. The mainstays of treatment are twofold: sodium restriction and diuretics. The development of spontaneous bacterial peritonitis is another ominous sign that requires indefinite antibiotic prophylaxis to prevent future infections. A referral to a transplant centre is essential once ascites or spontaneous bacterial peritonitis develop.
Key words: ascites, portal hypertension, cirrhosis, spontaneous bacterial peritonitis, paracentesis, albumin infusion.

Simon Brownsell, PhD, Research Fellow, School of Health and Related Research, University of Sheffield, UK.
Elaine Biddiss, PhD, Scientist, Bloorview Research Institute, Bloorview Kids Rehab; Assistant Professor, Institute of Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, ON.
Mark Hawley, PhD, Professor, School of Health and Related Research, University of Sheffield, UK.

The delivery of health care to people at home using information and communication technologies, often termed telecare, telehealth, or telehomecare, is set for rapid expansion. This article provides a brief overview of the applications and the evidence supporting its implementation. Relevant national policies in England and Canada are discussed, along with prominent examples of services and deployments. Finally, the links between research evidence, government policies, and service changes in primary care in the two countries are discussed.
Key words: telecare, telehealth, eHealth, telehomecare.

David G. Le Couteur, MD, PhD, Professor of Geriatric Medicine, Centre for Education and Research on Ageing and ANZAC Research Institute, University of Sydney and Concord RG Hospital, Sydney, Australia.
Arthur Everitt, PhD, Associate Professor, Centre for Education and Research on Ageing, and Department of Physiology, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia.
Michel Lebel, PhD, Associate Professor, Centre de Recherche en Cancérologie de l’Université Laval, Hôpital Hôtel-Dieu de Québec, Québec, PQ.

The liver undergoes substantial changes in structure and function in old age. There are age-related changes in liver mass, blood flow, and hepatocyte and sinusoidal cell morphology. These changes are associated with a significant impairment of many hepatic metabolic and detoxification activities, with implications for systemic aging and age-related disease. For example, the age-related impairment of the hepatic metabolism of lipoproteins predisposes to cardiovascular disease. The age-related decline in the hepatic clearance of most medications causes an increased risk of adverse drug reactions. Many of the beneficial effects of caloric restriction and caloric restriction mimetics such as resveratrol are mediated by their effects on the liver. Increasingly, the liver is seen as having a key role in aging.
Key words: liver, aging, hepatocyte, liver sinusoid, drug metabolism.

Michael J. Passmore, MD, FRCPC, Clinical Assistant Professor, Department of Psychiatry, Geriatric Psychiatry Program, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC.

The following review uses case studies to illustrate the importance of a biopsychosocial approach to the assessment and management of behavioural and psychological symptoms of dementia (BPSD). Practical BPSD assessment strategies are reviewed, in addition to evidence-based and guideline-supported recommendations for acute and long-term BPSD management.
Key words: dementia, behaviour, agitation, antipsychotic, memantine.

Janis J. Daly, PhD, MS, Director, Cognitive and Motor Learning Laboratory; Associate Director, FES Center of Excellence, Louis Stokes Cleveland Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center; Research Career Scientist, DVA, Washington, DC; Associate Professor, Department of Neurology, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, OH, USA.

For those with persistent gait and upper limb deficits after stroke, it is difficult to obtain recovery of motor control and functional capability in response to standard care methods. Functional electrical stimulation (FES) is a promising intervention. Surface FES for wrist and hand muscles can result in improved impairment sufficient to produce important gains in functional capability. In addition, an FES gait training system with multiple channels and implanted electrodes has shown a statistically significant additive advantage for the recovery of coordinated gait components versus a comparable comprehensive gait training treatment without FES. Results were sufficiently robust to show important gains in quality of life.
Key words: stroke, functional electrical stimulation, neuromuscular electrical stimulation, functional neuromuscular stimulation, functional recovery, rehabilitation.

James Frith, MB ChB, MRCP, Clinical Research Associate, Biomedical Research Centre in Ageing—Liver Theme and Institute for Ageing and Health, Newcastle University, Newcastle, UK.
Julia L. Newton PhD, FRCP, Professor, Biomedical Research Centre in Ageing—Liver Theme and Institute for Ageing and Health, Newcastle University, Newcastle, UK.

The prevalence of chronic liver disease is increasing in older people. The presentation of these diseases is often asymptomatic or nonspecific, so they easily go undiagnosed. Investigating the older person who has abnormal liver function is important in primary care, and the same vigilance should be applied to an older person as to a young person, even with mild abnormalities. Referral for specialist opinion in appropriate older people provides important diagnostic and prognostic information. Treatment options are similar for all age groups. Morbidity and age-adjusted mortality are often more severe in older people; therefore, early diagnosis and intervention are important.
Key words: chronic liver disease, aging, liver function tests.

Simon Yang, MD, Division of General Surgery, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON.
Calvin Law, MD, MPH, FRCS, Division of General Surgery, University of Toronto; Sunnybrook Health Sciences Centre, Toronto, ON.

The prevalence of gallstones has been increasing among the aging population. Common sequelae of cholelithiasis include asymptomatic gallstones, biliary colic, acute cholecystitis, choledocholithiasis, cholangitis, and gallstone pancreatitis. Among individuals over age 65, gallstone diseases represent an important cause of recurrent abdominal symptoms and surgical admissions. As advanced age is correlated with increased mortality and morbidity in complicated gallstone disease, timely diagnosis and appropriate management are essential to improving disease outcomes.
Key words: older adults, gallstones, cholecystitis, choledocholithiasis.

Abisola Famakinwa, MD, Instructor in Medicine, Harvard Medical School; Staff Physician, Edith Nourse Rogers Memorial Hospital, Bedford, MA, USA.

Increases in life expectancy and the aging of the baby boomer generation has resulted in unprecedented high numbers of older adults in the U.S. and Canada and, thus, a rising number of frail older adults with chronic medical conditions. Informal caregivers, primarily family members, have traditionally provided a large proportion of care at home, and their contribution is expected to be of even greater significance. Informal caregivers provide care at great expense to themselves, because caregiving can result in emotional, physical, and financial stresses. This article discusses the role physicians play in identifying and alleviating caregiver stress.
Key words: family caregivers, informal caregivers, caregiver stress, physician, older adults.

Robert Lam, MD, CCFP (Care of the Elderly), Attending Physician, Geriatric Rehabilitation Program, Toronto Rehabilitation Institute, Toronto, ON.
Alison Wong, MPT, Physiotherapist, Geriatric Rehabilitation Program, Toronto Rehabilitation Institute, Toronto, ON.

Primary care physicians often see older adults using gait aids during office visits. Gait aids can provide increased independence with functional mobility but, if used incorrectly, can lead to injury. Unfortunately, gait aids are often purchased without professional advice. Gait aid prescription requires consideration of multiple factors. This article outlines general tips primary care physicians can use to help decide which gait aid might be most appropriate for a patient. Primary care physicians should examine an older patient’s gait aid as physical mobility needs change, and consider referring the patient to a physiotherapist for a complete assessment and gait training.
Key words: gait aid, cane, walker, older adults, ambulation.

Daniel J. Brauner, MD, Department of Medicine/Geriatrics, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA.

Lack of adherence is a major reason for the failure of medical therapies and is an especially important and sometimes underappreciated issue for the growing number of people with dementia. The factors that tend to affect adherence in persons with dementia have begun to be appreciated and have implications for patients more generally. Strategies for improving adherence in patients with dementia based on their cognitive problems are discussed. Increased awareness of adherence will encourage physicians to create more reasonable and simplified medical regimes and promote the use of aids for improving adherence, which can also be used with cognitively intact patients.
Key words: dementia, adherence, medication management capacity.